Prevalence of Anemia Among Malaria Infected Mother Meta Analysis Review

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Meta-analysis of the prevalence of malaria associated with pregnancy in Republic of colombia 2000–2020

• Jaime Carmona-Fonseca

Meta-analysis of the prevalence of malaria associated with pregnancy in Colombia 2000–2020

• Jaiberth Antonio Cardona-Arias,
• Jaime Carmona-Fonseca

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• Published: July thirty, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255028

Figures

Abstract

Noesis about malaria associated with pregnancy is deficient in Latin America, and in Republic of colombia, piddling is known about the magnitude of this infection. A systematic review was conducted to make up one's mind the prevalence of malaria associated with pregnancy (MAP) and each of its three forms: gestational (GM), placental (PM), and built (CM) tested using thick blood smear (TBS) and PCR. Also to compare the proportion of cases due to Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax in Colombia from the year 2000–2020. Nosotros searched in Pubmed, Science Direct, EMBASE, EMCare, Cochrane Library, Scielo, Lilacs, Google Scholar, libraries, and repositories of Colombian universities, to obtain data on prevalence of GM, PM and CM with their corresponding testing method. We performed a meta-analysis with a random-effects model to obtain pooled prevalence of MAP and its 3 forms categorized by testing methods (TBS and PCR). We used data from xiv studies (out of 258 screened) contributing 7932, 2506 women for GM and PM respectively, also data on 1143 umbilical string blood samples, and 899 peripheral claret of neonates. We found prevalence by TBS as, MAP 4.five% (95%CI = two.nine–half-dozen.9), GM 5.8% (95%CI = 3.8–viii.7), PM 3.iv% (95%CI = 1.seven–vi.vii) and CM i.3% (95%CI = 0.6–3.0). With PCR the prevalence was, MAP fourteen.4% (95%CI = 7.6–25.5), GM 16.7% (95%CI = ix.0–28.8), PM eleven.0% (95%CI = 4.i–26.three) and CM 16.ii% (95%CI = 8.two–29.five). The prevalence of submicroscopic infection was 8.5% (95%CI = 3.4–nineteen.7) in GM, x.1% (95%CI = 3.five–25.five) in PM and 22.0% (95%CI = 13.2–34.3) in CM. Infections by P. vivax was dominant over P. falciparum when tested with TBS, the PCR test gave similar proportions of P. falciparum and P. vivax. This meta-assay has demonstrated high prevalence of MAP in Republic of colombia, and highlights the urgent need to increment attention of researchers, research funding institutions, government agencies, and health authorities to study and intervene MAP, that has currently been under investigated.

Citation: Cardona-Arias JA, Carmona-Fonseca J (2021) Meta-analysis of the prevalence of malaria associated with pregnancy in Colombia 2000–2020. PLoS ONE 16(7): e0255028. https://doi.org/10.1371/periodical.pone.0255028

Editor: Luzia Helena Carvalho, Instituto Rene Rachou, BRAZIL

Received: May 5, 2021; Accepted: July viii, 2021; Published: July 30, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Cardona-Arias, Carmona-Fonseca. This is an open admission commodity distributed nether the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted employ, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original writer and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are inside the newspaper and its Supporting information files.

Funding: JCF. Universidad de Antioquia. Colciencias/Minciencias Project 111 577 757 447, contrat 755-2017; Project 111 584 467 512, contrat 850-2019. The funders had no role in study pattern, data collection and assay, determination to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Abbreviations: CM, Built Malaria; DeCS, Descriptores en Ciencias de la Salud; GM, Gestational Malaria; MAP, Malaria Associated with Pregnancy; MESH, Medical Subject Headings; P. (falciparum or vivax), Plasmoduim; PCR, Polymerase Chain Reaction; PICO, Population Intervention Comparator Outcome; PM, Placental Malaria; PRISMA, Preferred Reporting Ítems for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses; STROBE, Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology; TBS, Thick Blood Smear

Introduction

The World Malaria Report 2020 reported 229 million cases and 409,000 deaths, 94% in Africa [1]. There has been a notable increase in cases in America since 2015 due to outbreaks in Costa rica, the Dominican Republic, and Ecuador and an increase in manual in Brazil, Guyana, Nicaragua, Panama, and Republic of colombia [ii]. In Colombia, by epidemiological calendar week 12 of 2021, 14,795 cases had been reported (in 2020, 65,293 were reported), 50.3% due to Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax), 49.0% due to Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) and 0,7% due to mixed infections [iii]. In the state, the incidence (adjusted almanac parasite index/ 1,000 exposed) betwixt 2000–2018 ranged between 3.90 and 11.50 (mean half dozen.52) with a stable tendency, 821 municipalities with relatively expert mosquito control, and 241 municipalities exposed [4]. Furthermore, betwixt 2010–2014 at that place were 124,285 women with malaria, with two.09% (2,596) reported as pregnant [5].

Malaria associated with pregnancy (MAP) includes the gestational malaria (GM), defined as the infection for Plasmodium spp. demonstrated in maternal peripheral blood by Thick Blood Smear (TBS), Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) or rapid diagnostic tests; the placental malaria (PM) which is defined with the presence of Plasmodium spp. in this organ past TBS, PCR, histopathology; and congenital malaria (CM) or infection in the neonate by transplacental transmission demonstrated in the first 7 days of life with a positive test for Plasmodium spp in umbilical string or peripheral blood of the newborn. MAP is related to negative furnishings on the health of the pregnant woman (astringent malaria, anemia, and death), fetus (anemia, intrauterine growth retardation, and death), and neonate; specifically in the pregnancy effect can generate ballgame, preterm labor, depression birth weight and, death [vi–8]. This highlights the importance of having robust epidemiological surveillance and investigative systems to diagnose, care for, monitor, and preclude new cases in pregnant women [8]. Despite its clinical, epidemiological, economic, and public wellness relevance in full general, MAP is a relatively under-researched field, every bit shown in a systematic review that just found 617 original studies between 1925–2018, with a small number of studies in Latin America [9].

In Colombia, inquiry on MAP is incipient, the few available studies have reported an increased adventure of anemia, severe malaria with complications such as liver dysfunction, acidosis, and astringent thrombocytopenia; lower nascency weight and no record of neonatal or fetal deaths [ten–12]. Furthermore, there are few studies that determine the magnitude of the problem. In this regard, previous investigations with TBS have reported prevalences of GM between ane.two% and 16.8% [13, xiv]; of PM betwixt 0.0% and 12.8% [14, 15]; of CM between 0.0% and ii.7% [12, 16]. While with PCR, these figures can amount to 32.i% in GM, 27.4% in PM [17], and 27.0% in CM [xvi], with differences in parasitic species involved, depending on the surface area of the country where the study is beingness carried out.

Heterogeneity in the magnitude of the MAP, the high variability of the available testify with TBS or PCR, the low sample size used in some studies, the lack of knowledge of the national landscape on the prevalence of MAP, and the absence of meta-assay in this field, demonstrate the need to conduct a systematic review on the prevalence of MAP in Republic of colombia. The following arguments are added to the above: i) a systematic review allows to group the national bear witness, improves the quality of the inferences and the accuracy of statistical estimates; ii) it is necessary to take a synthesis of the magnitude of the GM, PM, and CM, as an input for the orientation of subsequent etiological investigations and different prevention, care and surveillance deportment of the illness; iii) meta-analyze the prevalence of submicroscopic MAP would generate solid evidence on the need to improve screening, diagnosis, and treatment programs; four) this type of studies generates information on the global burden of the affliction, its geographical distribution, variation between subgroups and changes in temporal trends; and v) generate faster testify than a multicenter study when these are circuitous or too expensive [18].

The objectives of this research were: to analyze the general prevalence of MAP and specific of GM, PM, and CM according to TBS and PCR; estimate the prevalence of submicroscopic MAP, GM, PM, and CM; compare the proportion of cases due to P. falciparum and P. vivax; and place some factors associated with MAP in Colombia 2000–2020, based on studies reported in the world scientific literature.

Materials and methods

PICO question: Population Intervention Comparison Event

Population: Pregnant women, parturients, and their placentas or neonates in whom tests for the diagnosis of MAP were practical. The subjects included in the different systematized studies met the following inclusion criteria: being a permanent resident in the endemic expanse for more than than one year, pregnant women in good general wellness (with data from the clinical history, diseases or complications of the pregnant women were ruled out), absence of antimalarial treatment prior to study entry, hospital commitment, neonates diagnosed with GM (during pregnancy or in childbirth) and signature of the informed consent or assent by the mother.

Intervention: Per se, prevalence studies exercise not implement an intervention, just in this review, it would stand for to the application of TBS as a diagnosis of MAP.

Comparison: it would stand for to the implementation of PCR as a diagnostic method (although the first studies of the prevalence of MAP merely applied TBS).

Consequence: Prevalence of MAP and its associated factors.

Blazon of report

A systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis of prevalences [xix, 20] (S1 Table).

Data source and searches.

We searched in six multidisciplinary databases, including those that concentrate the most significant number of results in health sciences and biology: PubMed, EMCare, Science-Direct, Scielo, Lilacs, and Cochrane. Given the low publication on MAP in Colombia, the searches were complemented with queries in Google Scholar and in the institutional repositories of the main universities in Colombia with a track record in malaria enquiry: Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad Nacional, Universidad De los Andes, Universidad De Córdoba, Universidad Del Valle, Universidad De Caldas and Universidad Del Pacífico. For the selection of the search terms, a pearl harvesting [21] was carried out in previous reviews and articles near MAP and was complemented with a query in the thesauri DeCS (in Castilian "Descriptores en Ciencas de la Salud") and MESH (Medical Discipline Headings). With these strategies, iv terms were identified for pregnancy and three for malaria, and they were combined with the Boolean operator & for a full of 72 (12 syntaxes *half dozen databases) different search strategies, which were practical in each database (S2 Table). For the searches in the university repositories, since they did non incorporate good filters, only the term malaria, paludism (Plasmodium infections), or Plasmodium was searched, manually selecting the investigations on MAP.

The search had no restrictions on the year of publication, this review was delimited from the year 2000 because no publications were plant prior to this decade (two studies from the terminal century were not available in full text). The identified studies were exported to a common source in the public reference manager Zotero to eliminate duplicates.

Eligibility criteria.

Iii inclusion criteria were applied:

1. It had to be an original written report, thus eliminating reviews, editorials, and volume chapters
2. Be a study on MAP, reporting significant women, parturient, and their placentas or neonates in whom tests for the diagnosis of MAP were applied.
3. Studies that reported the prevalence of infection

It is worth clarifying that the term "prevalence" was not included in the search syntax since doing so resulted in a lower search sensitivity (very few studies were found). Therefore, information technology was decided to practice a broader search (excluding this term from the syntax) and then select the prevalence studies using the last inclusion benchmark.

The exclusion criteria were studies that were non carried out in Colombia or multicenter studies that included a group of pregnant women from Colombia, but without presenting the specific data for this country; studies that took data from previously published studies without including new information; and manufactures not available on the web and for which no response was obtained from the authors via email.

Study selection and data extraction.

The included studies were systematized using a qualitative synthesis of the variables title, authors, year and location of the study, type of MAP studied (gestational, placental, or built), number of study subjects, number of positives per diagnostic exam (TBS or PCR) and species (P. falciparum, P. vivax, and mixed infections) and associated factors.

A MAP good validated the protocol, the reproducibility was evaluated during the selection of the studies, and the extraction of the information by ii investigators (JACA and JCF) who settled whatsoever differences by consensus.

Quality assessment

The methodological quality was assessed using the STROBE guideline (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) (S3 Table); which contains 3 items to evaluate the quality of the championship-abstract, groundwork-rationale, and objectives; 8 criteria to determine methodological quality (report design, setting, selection of participants, variables, data source, bias, study size and statistical methods), 5 items for the results, and 5 for the discussion, limitations, interpretation, generalizability and funding.

Data analysis

The variables were described with frequencies. The following prevalences of infection were determined with a 95% confidence interval:

1. Prevalences of MAP equally the sum of all positive over all tested samples, expressed in pct, independent of the compartment analyzed (peripheral claret of the pregnant woman, the placenta, the cord, or the neonate)
2. Prevalences of GM, PM, and CM
3. Prevalences according to Thick Blood Smear and CRP
4. Based on the studies that applied both diagnostic tests, the prevalence of submicroscopic infection (positive with PCR and negative with TBS) was determined
5. Frequencies past parasitic species

A random effect model was applied to obtain pooled prevalence of MAP in its three forms (GM, PM and CM) categorised per testing method (TBS and PCR). Heterogeneity was evaluated using Q, I-squared, and Tau-squared tests; publication bias was evaluated using Begg'south statistical test, and Funnel plot; sensitivity analysis was evaluated using influence diagrams to determine the effect of each written report on the pooled measure, and Forest Plot for reporting the combined and private prevalence of each study.

The analyzes were carried out in Epidat 3.1, Excel, and SPSS 25.0, taking p values less than 0.05 as pregnant.

Results

In the initial search, without applying any filters in the databases, 51,159 results wereidentified, of which only 79 were screened afterward eliminating duplicates. After the eligibility criteria were applied, only xiv investigations were obtained that complied with the protocol (Fig i).

All the included studies showed excellent methodological quality, coming together more than than 80% of the criteria of the STROBE guideline. However, but 57% explicitly explained how the bias control was carried out (in those that did non explain information technology, due to the type of diagnostic tests and eligibility criteria practical, information technology was inferred that the risk of pick and information bias was low) (Fig 2).

The studies were published between 2009 and 2020 (the two unavailable studies corresponded to a report on MC from 1985 and one on GM in hospitalized patients from 1996), the majority were carried out in rural areas of the northwest of the country (except for the studies by the Vásquez's group that included pregnant women from urban areas of the Colombian Pacific region). 93% of studies (n = 13) determined the prevalence of GM with 7932 women, 86% (n = 12) of PM with 2506 placentas, and 50% (n = vii) of CM with 1143 umbilical cord samples and with 899 peripheral blood from neonates (Table i).

Prevalence of MAP

With TBS, prevalences of MAP was found to be between 0.seven% and xi.1% A random-furnishings model showed a pooled prevalence of iv.5% (95%CI = 2.9–6.ix). Similarly, for PCR, the pooled prevalence was 14.four% (95%CI = seven.6–25.5) (Table ii). In the sensitivity analysis for the TBS studies, none had greater weight on the combined measure. However, in the measurements with PCR, differences were found when eliminating each study in successive phases. When the Vásquez studies were excluded from the analysis, the prevalence of MAP rose to 28.1% (95%CI = 26.ane–30.three), which could be explained by the type of PCR used in their studies.

Using TBS, the prevalence of GM was 5.8% (95%CI = 3.8–8.7), of PM 3.iv% (95%CI = 1.7–6.7), and of CM 1.3% (95%CI = 0.six–3.0), without finding a greater weight of one of the studies according to the sensitivity analysis. Meanwhile, the pooled prevalences using PCR were GM 16.7% (95%CI = nine.0–28.eight), PM xi.0 (95%CI = 4.1–26.iii) and CM 16,ii% (95%CI = viii.two–29.5) (Tabular array 3), with this diagnostic test, the sensitivity analysis showed changes when eliminating some studies; Therefore, by excluding the Vásquez studies from the pooled measure, the prevalence of GM rose to 30.0% (95%CI = 27.0–33.2) and of PM to 33.5% (95%CI = 29.3–37.ix). In CM, when excluding the Bardaji report (this study processed samples of women with and without GM, while the others merely included infants with diagnoses of GM), the prevalence was 2.2% (95%CI = ane.iii–3.6) with TBS and 23.1% (95%CI = 15.2–33.v) with PCR.

The prevalence of submicroscopic infection was viii.5% (95%CI = 3.4–19.7) in GM, 10.1% (95%CI = 3.v–25.v) in PM and 22.0% (95%CI = xiii.two–34.3) in CM (Table 4). The prevalence of submicroscopic MAP was ix.1% (95%CI = 4.0–nineteen.3); By excluding the Vásquez studies, the submicroscopic infection of MAP amounted to 23.iii% (95%CI = 14.7–34.8), that of GM to 24.7% (95%CI = sixteen.9–34,v) and that of PM to 22.0% (95%CI = 9.i–44.1).

Cases per malaria species

Excluding the studies by Vásquez (because in the sensitivity analyzes they modified the pooled measure), the distribution by species was as follows:

1. With TBS: i) MAP by P. vivax 75,4% (306/406), P. falciparum 23,four% (95/406) and past mixed infections i,2% (5/406); 2) GM past P. vivax 75,iii% (238/316), P. falciparum 23,1% (73/316) and by mixed infections 1,half-dozen% (5/316); iii) PM by P. vivax 74.7% (56/75) and P. falciparum 25,3% (19/75); and iv) CM by P. vivax 85.7% (12/14) and P. falciparum 14,3% (2/xiv).
2. With PCR: i) MAP by P. vivax 45,9% (243/529), P. falciparum 47.8% (253/529) and by mixed infections six.2% (33/529); ii) GM by P. vivax 53,0% (143/270), P. falciparum 43.0% (116/270) and by mixed infections 4.0% (11/270); iii) PM by P. vivax 40,0% (72/180), P. falciparum 49.four% (89/180) and by mixed infections 10.half dozen% (xix/180); and iv) CM by P. vivax 36,8% (28/76), P. falciparum 59.2% (45/76) and by mixed infections iii.9% (3/76).

When comparing the prevalence of MAP acquired past P. vivax vs. P. falciparum, excluding the studies by Vásquez, a higher proportion of P. vivax cases was found with TBS, in GM with an OR of three.3 (95%CI = 2.5–four.4) and in PM of 3.3 (95%CI = 1.8–5.7), without finding any differences in the distribution of these two species with PCR since for GM the OR was 1.3 (95% CI = 0.9–1.seven), and in PM 0.8 (0.v–1.1) (Fig three). In these meta-analyzes, no publication bias was plant, equally observed with the graphical method and the Begg and Egger statistics (Fig 4). With TBS, the comparison of both species presented the following results: MAP registered an OR of 3.three (95%CI = two.6–iv.2) with P. vivax existence higher, CM did not bear witness differences in the prevalence of both species with an OR iii.i (95%CI = 0,9–x.1). With PCR, the comparison of both species presented the following results: MAP registered an OR of 1.0 (95%CI = 0.7–ane.5) and CM 0.7 (95%CI = 0.5–one.i) that indicated a similar prevalence of both species.

Finally, amongst the factors associated with MAP, the area of residence (higher GM in rural areas) [10]; the number of previous pregnancies (more GM in women with a college number of pregnancies) [12]; the weeks of gestation (lower gestational age in infected women) [10, 12]; the number of malaria episodes in the current pregnancy [10, 23], in the last year and among partners (college among infected pregnant women) [10]; and lower nascency weight were reported [12]. Notwithstanding, this evidence was not consistent amongst the studies (even betwixt those carried out in the same endemic area), since other authors did not report statistical differences in MAP according to maternal historic period [10, 15, 16, 22, 24], gestational age [15, xvi, 24], number of pregnancies [15, 22], previous episodes of malaria [16, 22], parity [16, 23, 24], weight and height of the newborn [15, 16, 22, 24], neonatal anemia, or preterm delivery [fifteen].

Discussion

We carried out a metanalysis to decide prevalence of MAP in Republic of colombia using data from 7932 pregnant women, 2506 placenta samples, 1143 umbilical string samples, and 899 peripheral blood samples from neonates. The selected studies were carried out from nine municipalities with loftier endemicity for malaria in Colombia. This constituted a study with greater possibilities of generalization of results and better statistical precision of the estimates of the dissimilar prevalences of MAP exposed, thereby materializing some of the main advantages of this type of enquiry [xviii].

Using TBS, the prevalence of GM was v.eight% (95%CI = 3.8–8.7), of PM iii.4% (95%CI = 1.7–vi.7) and of CM 1.iii% (95%CI = 0.six–3.0), which increase with the use of PCR to xvi.7% (95%CI = ix.0–28.8), 11.0% (95%CI = 4.1–26.3) and 16.two% (95%CI = 8.ii–29.5) respectively, showing a higher diagnostic yield of PCR to find cases. This effect is unlike from the findings of a meta-assay carried out with 49 studies, which indicated that PCR and light microscopy generate like diagnostic results. Yet, this same study declares as a limitation the fact that the highest proportion of systematized studies were carried out in infections by P. falciparum, for which more than investigations are required to decide the diagnostic yield of these tests for areas with a predominance of P vivax. Besides, in the instance of PM diagnosis, it is recommended to standardize placental histology every bit a reference diagnostic test and to ameliorate studies on the possible imitation-positives of PCR (when histology is taken equally standard) or to decide if the positive results of PCR and negative in histology are explained by the presence of sequestered parasites in the placenta that are not detected by microscopy [29].

Regardless of the limitations in the diagnostic yield or the operational complexity inherent to the implementation of TBS and PCR, this meta-analysis showed a loftier prevalence of GM, PM, and CM, demonstrating a high risk of parasite manual with the subsequent risk of maternal anemia, cerebral malaria, ballgame, stillbirth, preterm commitment, low birth weight, infant mortality and anemia [7], among other outcomes with serious medical, epidemiological, economic and public wellness impacts, which supports the need to increase the resources allocated to the early diagnosis and timely treatment of MAP.

The loftier prevalence of MAP reported in this research is more serious when considering the depression amount of resources allocated to malaria control in Colombia. An amount respective to less than United states$ten one thousand thousand for diagnosis, treatment, surveillance, promotion, and prevention activities as office of the framework of the Regional Initiative for the Elimination of Malaria (Iniciativa Regional para la Eliminación de la Malaria) "IREM," with no specific lines of action specified for pregnant women and their children [30].

The prevalence of submicroscopic infection was viii.5% (95%CI = 3.four–19.7) for GM, 10.1% (95%CI = iii.5–25.5) for PM, and 22.0% (95%CI = thirteen.2–34.3) for MC, like figures to those found in a systematic review of submicroscopic infections with studies from Africa, where information technology was 36% [31]. These results are worrying considering that the clinical practise guidelines for diagnosing and treating malaria in Colombia only consider TBS and some rapid tests, which means that these submicroscopic infections would not be diagnosed or treated [32]. In addition, undiagnosed submicroscopic infections, as well equally asymptomatic ones, institute an obstacle to the control and elimination programs since they allow the permanence of reservoirs of the parasite and thereby determining the intensity and stability of malaria transmission, especially in regions with low endemicity, every bit documented in previous systematic reviews [33]. Consequently, all of the above highlights the urgency of implementing more sensitive diagnostic tests and increasing fiscal resource to detect and treat this type of infection.

Using TBS, P. vivax infections predominated, and with PCR, the proportions of P. falciparum and P. vivax were statistically similar, which differs from the majority of previous studies on MAP in which P. falciparum predominates [9, 29, 31]. These findings bear witness the need to amend the funding of studies in Northwest Colombia, where P. vivax infections represent a loftier proportion, assuasive researchers to investigate the specificity of epidemiological and pathological factors and the clinical effects of MAP caused by this species. Additionally, a previous systematic review with 59 studies estimated that GM P. vivax increased the odds of fetal death by ii.viii when detected at delivery; these odds are reduced to i.09 when the infection was detected and treated during pregnancy [34].

Finally, it is essential to note that the written report of the factors associated with MAP was deficient. Some studies reported the association of MAP with the number of pregnancies [14], gestational age [10, 12], previous malaria episodes [10, 23], and nascence weight [12]. However, these findings were not consistent between the studies, so their research should exist circumscribed to more than local spaces, which allow the identification of possible risk factors specific to each group. Too, it is important to specify that the greatest proportion of studies focused on parasitological variables, which allows u.s.a. to suggest that in Colombia a further evolution of epidemiological studies is required to ameliorate the identification of risk factors, increase the number of sociodemographic, clinical and epidemiological variables analyzed, and develop subsequent etiological studies to quantify the risk factors of GM, PM, and CM.

Consistent with the higher up, the limitations of this research include non being able to perform meta-regressions or subgroup analyzes, which allow optimizing malaria emptying strategies, such as the comparison of pooled prevalence with general population, non-pregnant women, by gravidity, and other associated factors. Despite these limitations, the findings of this meta-analysis allow to propose the following strategies for programmatic implementation of MAP emptying in the afflicted communities: utilize molecular diagnostic tests to detect submicroscopic cases, implement active malaria surveillance systems at the showtime of pregnancy to reduce the prevalence of PM and MC, increment the budget for primary prevention actions in pregnant women and their families, create a specific budget line for the prevention and control of MAP in malaria and prenatal control programs.

Conclusion

This meta-analysis demonstrated a loftier prevalence of MAP and its three forms GM, PM and GM; underestimation of prevalence with TBS; very loftier prevalence of submicroscopic infections; similarity in the proportion of P. falciparum and P. vivax; and petty research on the factors associated with MAP and its furnishings on maternal, fetal and infant health. It is necessary to develop studies for take chances factors for MAP in order to have proper ways to empathize and control this health problem. These results, together with the absence of specific objectives in Colombia's National Malaria Strategic Program 2019–2022, highlight the urgent need to increase the efforts of researchers, enquiry funding institutions, and regime agencies and health authorities (WHO, PAHO, UNICEF, and others) to study MAP and its forms, in gild to advance its knowledge and subsequent control.

Supporting data

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